Project pages

The number one place to find more information about Robot Framework and the rich ecosystem around it is http://robotframework.org. Robot Framework itself is hosted on GitHub.

Mailing lists

There are several Robot Framework mailing lists where to ask and search for more information. The mailing list archives are open for everyone (including the search engines) and everyone can also join these lists freely. Only list members can send mails, though, and to prevent spam new users are moderated which means that it might take a little time before your first message goes through. Do not be afraid to send question to mailing lists but remember How To Ask Questions The Smart Way.

robotframework-users

General discussion about all Robot Framework related issues. Questions and problems can be sent to this list. Used also for information sharing for all users.

robotframework-announce

An announcements-only mailing list where only moderators can send messages. All announcements are sent also to the robotframework-users mailing list so there is no need to join both lists.

robotframework-devel

Discussion about Robot Framework development.

Installing Python on Linux

On Linux you should have suitable Python installation with pip available by default. If not, you need to consult your distributions documentation to learn how to install them. This is also true if you want to use some other Python version than the one provided by your distribution by default.

To check what Python version you have installed, you can run python --version command in a terminal:

$ python --version
Python 3.10.13

Notice that if your distribution provides also older Python 2, running python may use that. To use Python 3, you can use python3 command or even more version specific command like python3.8. You need to use these version specific variants also if you have multiple Python 3 versions installed and need to pinpoint which one to use:

$ python3.11 --version
Python 3.11.7
$ python3.12 --version
Python 3.12.1

Installing Robot Framework directly under the system provided Python has a risk that possible problems can affect the whole Python installation used also by the operating system itself. Nowadays Linux distributions typically use user installs by default to avoid such problems, but users can also themselves decide to use virtual environments.

Installing Python on Windows

On Windows Python is not available by default, but it is easy to install. The recommended way to install it is using the official Windows installers available at http://python.org. For other alternatives, such as installing from the Microsoft Store, see the official Python documentation.

When installing Python on Windows, it is recommended to add Python to PATH to make it and tools like pip and Robot Framework easier to execute from the command line. When using the official installer, you just need to select the Add Python 3.x to PATH checkbox on the first dialog.

To make sure Python installation has been successful and Python has been added to PATH, you can open the command prompt and execute python --version:

C:\>python --version
Python 3.10.9

If you install multiple Python versions on Windows, the version that is used when you execute python is the one first in PATH. If you need to use others, the easiest way is using the py launcher:

C:\>py --version
Python 3.10.9
C:\>py -3.12 --version
Python 3.12.1

Installing Python on macOS

MacOS does not provide Python 3 compatible Python version by default, so it needs to be installed separately. The recommended approach is using the official macOS installers available at http://python.org. If you are using a package manager like Homebrew, installing Python via it is possible as well.

You can validate Python installation on macOS using python --version like on other operating systems.

PyPy installation

PyPy is an alternative Python implementation. Its main advantage over the standard Python implementation is that it can be faster and use less memory, but this depends on the context where and how it is used. If execution speed is important, at least testing PyPy is probably a good idea.

Installing PyPy is a straightforward procedure and you can find both installers and installation instructions at http://pypy.org. To validate that PyPy installation was successful, run pypy --version or pypy3 --version.

Configuring PATH

The PATH environment variable lists directories where commands executed in a system are searched from. To make using Python, pip and Robot Framework easier from the command line, it is recommended to add the Python installation directory as well as the directory where commands like pip and robot are installed into PATH.

When using Python on Linux or macOS, Python and tools installed with it should be automatically in PATH. If you nevertheless need to update PATH, you typically need to edit some system wide or user specific configuration file. Which file to edit and how depends on the operating system and you need to consult its documentation for more details.

On Windows the easiest way to make sure PATH is configured correctly is setting the Add Python 3.x to PATH checkbox when running the installer. To manually modify PATH on Windows, follow these steps:

1. Find Environment Variables under Settings. There are variables affecting the whole system and variables affecting only the current user. Modifying the former will require admin rights, but modifying the latter is typically enough.
2. Select PATH (often written like Path) and click Edit. If you are editing user variables and PATH does not exist, click New instead.
3. Add both the Python installation directory and the Scripts directory under the installation directory into PATH.
4. Exit the dialog with Ok to save the changes.
5. Start a new command prompt for the changes to take effect.

Running pip command

Typically you use pip by running the pip command, but on Linux you may need to use pip3 or even more Python version specific variant like pip3.8 instead. When running pip or any of its variants, the pip version that is found first in PATH will be used. If you have multiple Python versions installed, you may need to pinpoint which exact version you want to use. This is typically easiest done by running python -m pip and substituting python with the Python version you want to use.

To make sure you have pip available, you can run pip --version or equivalent.

Examples on Linux:

$ pip --version
pip 23.2.1 from ... (python 3.10)
$ python3.12 -m pip --version
pip 23.3.1 from ... (python 3.12)

Examples on Windows:

C:\> pip --version
pip 23.2.1 from ... (python 3.10)
C:\> py -m 3.12 -m pip --version
pip 23.3.2 from ... (python 3.12)

In the subsequent sections pip is always run using the pip command. You may need to use some of the other approaches explained above in your environment.

Installing and uninstalling Robot Framework

The easiest way to use pip is by letting it find and download packages it installs from the Python Package Index (PyPI), but it can also install packages downloaded from the PyPI separately. The most common usages are shown below and pip documentation has more information and examples.

# Install the latest version (does not upgrade)
pip install robotframework

# Upgrade to the latest stable version
pip install --upgrade robotframework

# Upgrade to the latest version even if it is a pre-release
pip install --upgrade --pre robotframework

# Install a specific version
pip install robotframework==7.0

# Install separately downloaded package (no network connection needed)
pip install robotframework-7.0-py3-none-any.whl

# Install latest (possibly unreleased) code directly from GitHub
pip install https://github.com/robotframework/robotframework/archive/master.zip

# Uninstall
pip uninstall robotframework

Space separated format

When Robot Framework parses data, it first splits the data to lines and then lines to tokens such as keywords and arguments. When using the space separated format, the separator between tokens is two or more spaces or alternatively one or more tab characters. In addition to the normal ASCII space, any Unicode character considered to be a space (e.g. no-break space) works as a separator. The number of spaces used as separator can vary, as long as there are at least two, making it possible to align the data nicely in settings and elsewhere when it makes the data easier to understand.

*** Settings ***
Documentation     Example using the space separated format.
Library           OperatingSystem

*** Variables ***
${MESSAGE}        Hello, world!

*** Test Cases ***
My Test
    [Documentation]    Example test.
    Log    ${MESSAGE}
    My Keyword    ${CURDIR}

Another Test
    Should Be Equal    ${MESSAGE}    Hello, world!

*** Keywords ***
My Keyword
    [Arguments]    ${path}
    Directory Should Exist    ${path}

Because tabs and consecutive spaces are considered separators, they must be escaped if they are needed in keyword arguments or elsewhere in the actual data. It is possible to use special escape syntax like \t for tab and \xA0 for no-break space as well as built-in variables ${SPACE} and ${EMPTY}. See the Escaping section for details.

Pipe separated format

The biggest problem of the space delimited format is that visually separating keywords from arguments can be tricky. This is a problem especially if keywords take a lot of arguments and/or arguments contain spaces. In such cases the pipe delimited variant can work better because it makes the separator more visible.

One file can contain both space separated and pipe separated lines. Pipe separated lines are recognized by the mandatory leading pipe character, but the pipe at the end of the line is optional. There must always be at least one space or tab on both sides of the pipe except at the beginning and at the end of the line. There is no need to align the pipes, but that often makes the data easier to read.

| *** Settings ***   |
| Documentation      | Example using the pipe separated format.
| Library            | OperatingSystem

| *** Variables ***  |
| ${MESSAGE}         | Hello, world!

| *** Test Cases *** |                 |               |
| My Test            | [Documentation] | Example test. |
|                    | Log             | ${MESSAGE}    |
|                    | My Keyword      | ${CURDIR}     |
| Another Test       | Should Be Equal | ${MESSAGE}    | Hello, world!

| *** Keywords ***   |                        |         |
| My Keyword         | [Arguments]            | ${path} |
|                    | Directory Should Exist | ${path} |

When using the pipe separated format, consecutive spaces or tabs inside arguments do not need to be escaped. Similarly empty columns do not need to be escaped except if they are at the end. Possible pipes surrounded by spaces in the actual test data must be escaped with a backslash, though:

| *** Test Cases *** |                 |                 |                      |
| Escaping Pipe      | ${file count} = | Execute Command | ls -1 *.txt \| wc -l |
|                    | Should Be Equal | ${file count}   | 42                   |

reStructuredText format

reStructuredText (reST) is an easy-to-read plain text markup syntax that is commonly used for documentation of Python projects, including Python itself as well as this User Guide. reST documents are most often compiled to HTML, but also other output formats are supported. Using reST with Robot Framework allows you to mix richly formatted documents and test data in a concise text format that is easy to work with using simple text editors, diff tools, and source control systems.

When using Robot Framework with reStructuredText files, normal Robot Framework data is embedded to so called code blocks. In standard reST code blocks are marked using the code directive, but Robot Framework supports also code-block or sourcecode directives used by the Sphinx tool.

reStructuredText example
------------------------

This text is outside code blocks and thus ignored.

.. code:: robotframework

   *** Settings ***
   Documentation    Example using the reStructuredText format.
   Library          OperatingSystem

   *** Variables ***
   ${MESSAGE}       Hello, world!

   *** Test Cases ***
   My Test
       [Documentation]    Example test.
       Log    ${MESSAGE}
       My Keyword    ${CURDIR}

   Another Test
       Should Be Equal    ${MESSAGE}    Hello, world!

Also this text is outside code blocks and ignored. Code blocks not
containing Robot Framework data are ignored as well.

.. code:: robotframework

   # Both space and pipe separated formats are supported.

   | *** Keywords ***  |                        |         |
   | My Keyword        | [Arguments]            | ${path} |
   |                   | Directory Should Exist | ${path} |

.. code:: python

   # This code block is ignored.
   def example():
       print('Hello, world!')

Robot Framework supports reStructuredText files using .robot.rst, .rst and .rest extensions. To avoid parsing unrelated reStructuredText files, only files with the .robot.rst extension are parsed by default when executing a directory. Parsing files with other extensions can be enabled by using either --parseinclude or --extension option.

When Robot Framework parses reStructuredText files, errors below level SEVERE are ignored to avoid noise about possible non-standard directives and other such markup. This may hide also real errors, but they can be seen when processing files using reStructuredText tooling normally.

JSON format

Robot Framework supports data also in the JSON format. This format is designed more for tool developers than for regular Robot Framework users and it is not meant to be edited manually. Its most important use cases are:

• Transferring data between processes and machines. A suite can be converted to JSON in one machine and recreated somewhere else.
• Saving a suite, possibly a nested suite, constructed from normal Robot Framework data into a single JSON file that is faster to parse.
• Alternative data format for external tools generating tests or tasks.

from robot.running import TestSuite


# Create suite based on data on the file system.
suite = TestSuite.from_file_system('/path/to/data')

# Get JSON data as a string.
data = suite.to_json()

# Save JSON data to a file with custom indentation.
suite.to_json('data.rbt', indent=2)

from robot.running import TestSuite


# Create suite from JSON data in a file.
suite = TestSuite.from_json('data.rbt')

# Create suite from a JSON string.
suite = TestSuite.from_json('{"name": "Suite", "tests": [{"name": "Test"}]}')

# Execute suite. Notice that log and report needs to be created separately.
suite.run(output='example.xml')

from robot.running import TestSuite


# Create a suite, adjust source and convert to JSON.
suite = TestSuite.from_file_system('/path/to/data')
suite.adjust_source(relative_to='/path/to')
suite.to_json('data.rbt')

# Recreate suite elsewhere and adjust source accordingly.
suite = TestSuite.from_json('data.rbt')
suite.adjust_source(root='/new/path/to')

Ignored data

When Robot Framework parses the test data files, it ignores:

• All data before the first test data section.
• Data in the Comments section.
• All empty rows.
• All empty cells at the end of rows when using the pipe separated format.
• All single backslashes (\) when not used for escaping.
• All characters following the hash character (#), when it is the first character of a cell. This means that hash marks can be used to enter comments in the test data.

When Robot Framework ignores some data, this data is not available in any resulting reports and, additionally, most tools used with Robot Framework also ignore them. To add information that is visible in Robot Framework outputs, place it to the documentation or other metadata of test cases or suites, or log it with the BuiltIn keywords Log or Comment.

Escaping

The escape character in Robot Framework test data is the backslash (\) and additionally built-in variables ${EMPTY} and ${SPACE} can often be used for escaping. Different escaping mechanisms are discussed in the sections below.

*** Test Cases ***
Using backslash
    Do Something    first arg    \
    Do Something    \            second arg

Using ${EMPTY}
    Do Something    first arg    ${EMPTY}
    Do Something    ${EMPTY}     second arg

| *** Test Cases *** |              |           |            |
| Using backslash    | Do Something | first arg | \          |
|                    | Do Something |           | second arg |
|                    |              |           |            |
| Using ${EMPTY}     | Do Something | first arg | ${EMPTY}   |
|                    | Do Something |           | second arg |

Dividing data to several rows

If there is more data than readily fits a row, it is possible to split it and start continuing rows with ellipsis (...). Ellipses can be indented to match the indentation of the starting row and they must always be followed by the normal test data separator.

In most places split lines have exact same semantics as lines that are not split. Exceptions to this rule are suite, test and keyword documentation as well suite metadata. With them split values are automatically joined together with the newline character to ease creating multiline values.

The ... syntax allows also splitting variables in the Variable section. When long scalar variables (e.g. ${STRING}) are split to multiple rows, the final value is got by concatenating the rows together. The separator is a space by default, but that can be changed by starting the value with SEPARATOR=<sep>.

Splitting lines is illustrated in the following two examples containing exactly same data without and with splitting.

*** Settings ***
Documentation      Here we have documentation for this suite.\nDocumentation is often quite long.\n\nIt can also contain multiple paragraphs.
Default Tags       default tag 1    default tag 2    default tag 3    default tag 4    default tag 5

*** Variables ***
${STRING}          This is a long string. It has multiple sentences. It does not have newlines.
${MULTILINE}       This is a long multiline string.\nThis is the second line.\nThis is the third and the last line.
@{LIST}            this     list     is    quite    long     and    items in it can also be long
&{DICT}            first=This value is pretty long.    second=This value is even longer. It has two sentences.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    [Tags]    you    probably    do    not    have    this    many    tags    in    real    life
    Do X    first argument    second argument    third argument    fourth argument    fifth argument    sixth argument
    ${var} =    Get X    first argument passed to this keyword is pretty long    second argument passed to this keyword is long too

*** Settings ***
Documentation      Here we have documentation for this suite.
...                Documentation is often quite long.
...
...                It can also contain multiple paragraphs.
Default Tags       default tag 1    default tag 2    default tag 3
...                default tag 4    default tag 5

*** Variables ***
${STRING}          This is a long string.
...                It has multiple sentences.
...                It does not have newlines.
${MULTILINE}       SEPARATOR=\n
...                This is a long multiline string.
...                This is the second line.
...                This is the third and the last line.
@{LIST}            this     list     is      quite    long     and
...                items in it can also be long
&{DICT}            first=This value is pretty long.
...                second=This value is even longer. It has two sentences.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    [Tags]    you    probably    do    not    have    this    many
    ...       tags    in    real    life
    Do X    first argument    second argument    third argument
    ...    fourth argument    fifth argument    sixth argument
    ${var} =    Get X
    ...    first argument passed to this keyword is pretty long
    ...    second argument passed to this keyword is long too

Enabling languages

robot --language Finnish testit.robot
robot --language pt --language ptbr testes.robot

robot --language Custom.py tests.robot
robot --language MyLang tests.robot

Language: Finnish

*** Asetukset ***
Dokumentaatio        Example using Finnish.

Built-in languages

The following languages are supported out-of-the-box. Click the language name to see the actual translations:

• Bulgarian (bg)
• Bosnian (bs)
• Czech (cs)
• German (de)
• Spanish (es)
• Finnish (fi)
• French (fr)
• Hindi (hi)
• Italian (it)
• Japanese (ja)
• Korean (ko)
• Dutch (nl)
• Polish (pl)
• Portuguese (pt)
• Brazilian Portuguese (pt-BR)
• Romanian (ro)
• Russian (ru)
• Swedish (sv)
• Thai (th)
• Turkish (tr)
• Ukrainian (uk)
• Vietnamese (vi)
• Chinese Simplified (zh-CN)
• Chinese Traditional (zh-TW)

All these translations have been provided by the awesome Robot Framework community. If a language you are interested in is not included, you can consider contributing it!

Custom language files

If a language you would need is not available as a built-in language, or you want to create a totally custom language for some specific need, you can easily create a custom language file. Language files are Python files that contain one or more language definitions that are all loaded when the language file is taken into use. Language definitions are created by extending the robot.api.Language base class and overriding class attributes as needed:

from robot.api import Language


class Example(Language):
    test_cases_header = 'Validations'
    tags_setting = 'Labels'
    given_prefixes = ['Assuming']
    true_strings = ['OK', '\N{THUMBS UP SIGN}']

Assuming the above code would be in file example.py, a path to that file or just the module name example could be used when the language file is activated.

The above example adds only some of the possible translations. That is fine because English is automatically enabled anyway. Most values must be specified as strings, but BDD prefixes and true/false strings allow more than one value and must be given as lists. For more examples, see Robot Framework's internal languages module that contains the Language class as well as all built-in language definitions.

Contributing translations

If you want to add translation for a new language or enhance existing, head to Crowdin that we use for collaboration. For more details, see the separate Localization project, and for questions and free discussion join the #localization channel on our Slack.

Basic syntax

Test cases are constructed in test case sections from the available keywords. Keywords can be imported from test libraries or resource files, or created in the keyword section of the test case file itself.

The first column in the test case section contains test case names. A test case starts from the row with something in this column and continues to the next test case name or to the end of the section. It is an error to have something between the section headers and the first test.

The second column normally has keyword names. An exception to this rule is setting variables from keyword return values, when the second and possibly also the subsequent columns contain variable names and a keyword name is located after them. In either case, columns after the keyword name contain possible arguments to the specified keyword.

*** Test Cases ***
Valid Login
    Open Login Page
    Input Username    demo
    Input Password    mode
    Submit Credentials
    Welcome Page Should Be Open

Setting Variables
    Do Something    first argument    second argument
    ${value} =    Get Some Value
    Should Be Equal    ${value}    Expected value

Settings in the Test Case section

Test cases can also have their own settings. Setting names are always in the second column, where keywords normally are, and their values are in the subsequent columns. Setting names have square brackets around them to distinguish them from keywords. The available settings are listed below and explained later in this section.

[Documentation]

Used for specifying a test case documentation.

[Setup], [Teardown]

Specify test setup and teardown.

[Tags]

Used for tagging test cases.

[Template]

Specifies the template keyword to use. The test itself will contain only data to use as arguments to that keyword.

[Timeout]

Used for setting a test case timeout. Timeouts are discussed in their own section.

Example test case with settings:

*** Test Cases ***
Test With Settings
    [Documentation]    Another dummy test
    [Tags]    dummy    owner-johndoe
    Log    Hello, world!

Test case related settings in the Setting section

The Setting section can have the following test case related settings. These settings are mainly default values for the test case specific settings listed earlier.

Test Setup, Test Teardown

The default values for test setup and teardown.

Test Tags

Tags all tests in the suite will get in addition to their possible own tags.

Test Template

The default template keyword to use.

Test Timeout

The default value for test case timeout. Timeouts are discussed in their own section.

Positional arguments

Most keywords have a certain number of arguments that must always be given. In the keyword documentation this is denoted by specifying the argument names separated with a comma like first, second, third. The argument names actually do not matter in this case, except that they should explain what the argument does, but it is important to have exactly the same number of arguments as specified in the documentation. Using too few or too many arguments will result in an error.

The test below uses keywords Create Directory and Copy File from the OperatingSystem library. Their arguments are specified as path and source, destination, which means that they take one and two arguments, respectively. The last keyword, No Operation from BuiltIn, takes no arguments.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Create Directory    ${TEMPDIR}/stuff
    Copy File    ${CURDIR}/file.txt    ${TEMPDIR}/stuff
    No Operation

Default values

Arguments often have default values which can either be given or not. In the documentation the default value is typically separated from the argument name with an equal sign like name=default value. It is possible that all the arguments have default values, but there cannot be any positional arguments after arguments with default values.

Using default values is illustrated by the example below that uses Create File keyword which has arguments path, content=, encoding=UTF-8. Trying to use it without any arguments or more than three arguments would not work.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Create File    ${TEMPDIR}/empty.txt
    Create File    ${TEMPDIR}/utf-8.txt         Hyvä esimerkki
    Create File    ${TEMPDIR}/iso-8859-1.txt    Hyvä esimerkki    ISO-8859-1

Variable number of arguments

It is also possible that a keyword accepts any number of arguments. These so called varargs can be combined with mandatory arguments and arguments with default values, but they are always given after them. In the documentation they have an asterisk before the argument name like *varargs.

For example, Remove Files and Join Paths keywords from the OperatingSystem library have arguments *paths and base, *parts, respectively. The former can be used with any number of arguments, but the latter requires at least one argument.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Remove Files    ${TEMPDIR}/f1.txt    ${TEMPDIR}/f2.txt    ${TEMPDIR}/f3.txt
    @{paths} =    Join Paths    ${TEMPDIR}    f1.txt    f2.txt    f3.txt    f4.txt

Named arguments

The named argument syntax makes using arguments with default values more flexible, and allows explicitly labeling what a certain argument value means. Technically named arguments work exactly like keyword arguments in Python.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Run Program    shell=True    # This will not come as a named argument to Run Process

*** Keywords ***
Run Program
    [Arguments]    @{args}
    Run Process    program.py    @{args}    # Named arguments are not recognized from inside @{args}

*** Settings ***
Library    Telnet    prompt=$    default_log_level=DEBUG

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Open connection    10.0.0.42    port=${PORT}    alias=example
    List files    options=-lh
    List files    path=/tmp    options=-l

*** Keywords ***
List files
    [Arguments]    ${path}=.    ${options}=
    Execute command    ls ${options} ${path}

Free named arguments

Robot Framework supports free named arguments, often also called free keyword arguments or kwargs, similarly as Python supports **kwargs. What this means is that a keyword can receive all arguments that use the named argument syntax (name=value) and do not match any arguments specified in the signature of the keyword.

Free named arguments are supported by same keyword types than normal named arguments. How keywords specify that they accept free named arguments depends on the keyword type. For example, Python based keywords simply use **kwargs and user keywords use &{kwargs}.

Free named arguments support variables similarly as named arguments. In practice that means that variables can be used both in names and values, but the escape sign must always be visible literally. For example, both foo=${bar} and ${foo}=${bar} are valid, as long as the variables that are used exist. An extra limitation is that free argument names must always be strings.

*** Test Cases ***
Free Named Arguments
    Run Process    program.py    arg1    arg2    cwd=/home/user
    Run Process    program.py    argument    shell=True    env=${ENVIRON}

*** Test Cases ***
Free Named Arguments
    Run Program    arg1    arg2    cwd=/home/user
    Run Program    argument    shell=True    env=${ENVIRON}

*** Keywords ***
Run Program
    [Arguments]    @{args}    &{config}
    Run Process    program.py    @{args}    &{config}

Named-only arguments

Starting from Robot Framework 3.1, keywords can accept argument that must always be named using the named argument syntax. If, for example, a keyword would accept a single named-only argument example, it would always need to be used like example=value and using just value would not work. This syntax is inspired by the keyword-only arguments syntax supported by Python 3.

For most parts named-only arguments work the same way as named arguments. The main difference is that libraries implemented with Python 2 using the static library API do not support this syntax.

As an example of using the named-only arguments with user keywords, here is a variation of the Run Program in the above free named argument examples that only supports configuring shell:

*** Test Cases ***
Named-only Arguments
    Run Program    arg1    arg2              # 'shell' is False (default)
    Run Program    argument    shell=True    # 'shell' is True

*** Keywords ***
Run Program
    [Arguments]    @{args}    ${shell}=False
    Run Process    program.py    @{args}    shell=${shell}

Arguments embedded to keyword names

A totally different approach to specify arguments is embedding them into keyword names. This syntax is supported by both test library keywords and user keywords.

When test case fails

A test case fails if any of the keyword it uses fails. Normally this means that execution of that test case is stopped, possible test teardown is executed, and then execution continues from the next test case. It is also possible to use special continuable failures if stopping test execution is not desired.

Error messages

The error message assigned to a failed test case is got directly from the failed keyword. Often the error message is created by the keyword itself, but some keywords allow configuring them.

In some circumstances, for example when continuable failures are used, a test case can fail multiple times. In that case the final error message is got by combining the individual errors. Very long error messages are automatically cut from the middle to keep reports easier to read, but full error messages are always visible in log files as messages of the failed keywords.

By default error messages are normal text, but they can contain HTML formatting. This is enabled by starting the error message with marker string *HTML*. This marker will be removed from the final error message shown in reports and logs. Using HTML in a custom message is shown in the second example below.

*** Test Cases ***
Normal Error
    Fail    This is a rather boring example...

HTML Error
    ${number} =    Get Number
    Should Be Equal    ${number}    42    *HTML* Number is not my <b>MAGIC</b> number.

Deprecation of Force Tags and Default Tags

Prior to Robot Framework 6.0, tags could be specified to tests in the Setting section using two different settings:

Force Tags

All tests unconditionally get these tags. This is exactly the same as Test Tags nowadays.

Default Tags

All tests get these tags by default. If a test has [Tags], it will not get these tags.

Both of these settings still work, but they are considered deprecated. A visible deprecation warning will be added in the future, most likely in Robot Framework 8.0, and eventually these settings will be removed. Tools like Tidy can be used to ease transition.

Updating Force Tags requires only renaming it to Test Tags. The Default Tags setting will be removed altogether, but the -tag functionality introduced in Robot Framework 7.0 provides same underlying functionality. The following examples demonstrate the needed changes.

Old syntax:

*** Settings ***
Force Tags      all
Default Tags    default

*** Test Cases ***
Common only
    [Documentation]    Test has tags 'all' and 'default'.
    No Operation

No default
    [Documentation]    Test has only tag 'all'.
    [Tags]
    No Operation

Own and no default
    [Documentation]    Test has tags 'all' and 'own'.
    [Tags]    own
    No Operation

New syntax:

*** Settings ***
Test Tags      all    default

*** Test Cases ***
Common only
    [Documentation]    Test has tags 'all' and 'default'.
    No Operation

No default
    [Documentation]    Test has only tag 'all'.
    [Tags]    -default
    No Operation

Own and no default
    [Documentation]    Test has tags 'all' and 'own'.
    [Tags]    own    -default
    No Operation

Reserved tags

Users are generally free to use whatever tags that work in their context. There are, however, certain tags that have a predefined meaning for Robot Framework itself, and using them for other purposes can have unexpected results. All special tags Robot Framework has and will have in the future have the robot: prefix. To avoid problems, users should thus not use any tag with this prefixes unless actually activating the special functionality. The current reserved tags are listed below, but more such tags are likely to be added in the future.

robot:continue-on-failure and robot:recursive-continue-on-failure

Used for enabling the continue-on-failure mode.

robot:stop-on-failure and robot:recursive-stop-on-failure

Used for disabling the continue-on-failure mode.

robot:skip-on-failure

Mark test to be skipped if it fails.

robot:skip

Mark test to be unconditionally skipped.

robot:exclude

Mark test to be unconditionally excluded.

robot:private

Mark keyword to be private.

robot:no-dry-run

Mark keyword not to be executed in the dry run mode.

robot:exit

Added to tests automatically when execution is stopped gracefully.

robot:flatten

Enable flattening keyword during execution time.

As of RobotFramework 4.1, reserved tags are suppressed by default in tag statistics. They will be shown when they are explicitly included via the --tagstatinclude robot:* command line option.

Basic usage

How a keyword accepting normal positional arguments can be used as a template is illustrated by the following example test cases. These two tests are functionally fully identical.

*** Test Cases ***
Normal test case
    Example keyword    first argument    second argument

Templated test case
    [Template]    Example keyword
    first argument    second argument

As the example illustrates, it is possible to specify the template for an individual test case using the [Template] setting. An alternative approach is using the Test Template setting in the Setting section, in which case the template is applied for all test cases in that test case file. The [Template] setting overrides the possible template set in the Setting section, and an empty value for [Template] means that the test has no template even when Test Template is used. It is also possible to use value NONE to indicate that a test has no template.

If a templated test case has multiple data rows in its body, the template is applied for all the rows one by one. This means that the same keyword is executed multiple times, once with data on each row. Templated tests are also special so that all the rounds are executed even if one or more of them fails. It is possible to use this kind of continue on failure mode with normal tests too, but with the templated tests the mode is on automatically.

*** Settings ***
Test Template    Example keyword

*** Test Cases ***
Templated test case
    first round 1     first round 2
    second round 1    second round 2
    third round 1     third round 2

Using keywords with default values or accepting variable number of arguments, as well as using named arguments and free named arguments, work with templates exactly like they work otherwise. Using variables in arguments is also supported normally.

Templates with embedded arguments

Templates support a variation of the embedded argument syntax. With templates this syntax works so that if the template keyword has variables in its name, they are considered placeholders for arguments and replaced with the actual arguments used with the template. The resulting keyword is then used without positional arguments. This is best illustrated with an example:

*** Test Cases ***
Normal test case with embedded arguments
    The result of 1 + 1 should be 2
    The result of 1 + 2 should be 3

Template with embedded arguments
    [Template]    The result of ${calculation} should be ${expected}
    1 + 1    2
    1 + 2    3

*** Keywords ***
The result of ${calculation} should be ${expected}
    ${result} =    Calculate    ${calculation}
    Should Be Equal    ${result}     ${expected}

When embedded arguments are used with templates, the number of arguments in the template keyword name must match the number of arguments it is used with. The argument names do not need to match the arguments of the original keyword, though, and it is also possible to use different arguments altogether:

*** Test Cases ***
Different argument names
    [Template]    The result of ${foo} should be ${bar}
    1 + 1    2
    1 + 2    3

Only some arguments
    [Template]    The result of ${calculation} should be 3
    1 + 2
    4 - 1

New arguments
    [Template]    The ${meaning} of ${life} should be 42
    result    21 * 2

The main benefit of using embedded arguments with templates is that argument names are specified explicitly. When using normal arguments, the same effect can be achieved by naming the columns that contain arguments. This is illustrated by the data-driven style example in the next section.

Templates with FOR loops

If templates are used with FOR loops, the template is applied for all the steps inside the loop. The continue on failure mode is in use also in this case, which means that all the steps are executed with all the looped elements even if there are failures.

*** Test Cases ***
Template with FOR loop
    [Template]    Example keyword
    FOR    ${item}    IN    @{ITEMS}
        ${item}    2nd arg
    END
    FOR    ${index}    IN RANGE    42
        1st arg    ${index}
    END

Templates with IF/ELSE structures

IF/ELSE structures can be also used together with templates. This can be useful, for example, when used together with FOR loops to filter executed arguments.

*** Test Cases ***
Template with FOR and IF
    [Template]    Example keyword
    FOR    ${item}    IN    @{ITEMS}
        IF  ${item} < 5
            ${item}    2nd arg
        END
    END

Keyword-driven style

Workflow tests, such as the Valid Login test described earlier, are constructed from several keywords and their possible arguments. Their normal structure is that first the system is taken into the initial state (Open Login Page in the Valid Login example), then something is done to the system (Input Name, Input Password, Submit Credentials), and finally it is verified that the system behaved as expected (Welcome Page Should Be Open).

Data-driven style

Another style to write test cases is the data-driven approach where test cases use only one higher-level keyword, often created as a user keyword, that hides the actual test workflow. These tests are very useful when there is a need to test the same scenario with different input and/or output data. It would be possible to repeat the same keyword with every test, but the test template functionality allows specifying the keyword to use only once.

*** Settings ***
Test Template    Login with invalid credentials should fail

*** Test Cases ***                USERNAME         PASSWORD
Invalid User Name                 invalid          ${VALID PASSWORD}
Invalid Password                  ${VALID USER}    invalid
Invalid User Name and Password    invalid          invalid
Empty User Name                   ${EMPTY}         ${VALID PASSWORD}
Empty Password                    ${VALID USER}    ${EMPTY}
Empty User Name and Password      ${EMPTY}         ${EMPTY}

The above example has six separate tests, one for each invalid user/password combination, and the example below illustrates how to have only one test with all the combinations. When using test templates, all the rounds in a test are executed even if there are failures, so there is no real functional difference between these two styles. In the above example separate combinations are named so it is easier to see what they test, but having potentially large number of these tests may mess-up statistics. Which style to use depends on the context and personal preferences.

*** Test Cases ***
Invalid Password
    [Template]    Login with invalid credentials should fail
    invalid          ${VALID PASSWORD}
    ${VALID USER}    invalid
    invalid          whatever
    ${EMPTY}         ${VALID PASSWORD}
    ${VALID USER}    ${EMPTY}
    ${EMPTY}         ${EMPTY}

Behavior-driven style

It is also possible to write test cases as requirements that also non-technical project stakeholders must understand. These executable requirements are a corner stone of a process commonly called Acceptance Test Driven Development (ATDD) or Specification by Example.

One way to write these requirements/tests is Given-When-Then style popularized by Behavior Driven Development (BDD). When writing test cases in this style, the initial state is usually expressed with a keyword starting with word Given, the actions are described with keyword starting with When and the expectations with a keyword starting with Then. Keyword starting with And or But may be used if a step has more than one action.

*** Test Cases ***
Valid Login
    Given login page is open
    When valid username and password are inserted
    and credentials are submitted
    Then welcome page should be open

Suite initialization files

A test suite created from a directory can have similar settings as a suite created from a test case file. Because a directory alone cannot have that kind of information, it must be placed into a special test suite initialization file. An initialization file name must always be of the format __init__.ext, where the extension must be one of the supported file formats (typically __init__.robot). The name format is borrowed from Python, where files named in this manner denote that a directory is a module.

Starting from Robot Framework 6.1, it is also possible to define a suite initialization file for automatically created suite when starting the test execution by giving multiple paths.

Initialization files have the same structure and syntax as test case files, except that they cannot have test case sections and not all settings are supported. Variables and keywords created or imported in initialization files are not available in the lower level test suites. If you need to share variables or keywords, you can put them into resource files that can be imported both by initialization and test case files.

The main usage for initialization files is specifying test suite related settings similarly as in suite files, but setting some test case related settings is also possible. How to use different settings in the initialization files is explained below.

Name, Documentation, Metadata, Suite Setup, Suite Teardown

These suite specific settings work the same way in suite initialization files as in suite files.

Test Tags

Specified tags are unconditionally set to all tests in all suite files this directory contains, recursively. New in Robot Framework 6.1. The deprecated Force Tags needs to be used with older versions.

Test Setup, Test Teardown, Test Timeout

Set the default value for test setup/teardown or test timeout to all test cases this directory contains. Can be overridden on lower level. Notice that keywords used as setups and teardowns must be available in test case files where tests using them are. Defining keywords in the initialization file itself is not enough.

Task Setup, Task Teardown, Task Tags, Task Timeout

Aliases for Test Setup, Test Teardown, Test Tags and Test Timeout, respectively, that can be used when creating tasks, not tests.

Default Tags, Test Template

Not supported in initialization files.

*** Settings ***
Documentation    Example suite
Suite Setup      Do Something    ${MESSAGE}
Test Tags        example
Library          SomeLibrary

*** Variables ***
${MESSAGE}       Hello, world!

*** Keywords ***
Do Something
    [Arguments]    ${args}
    Some Keyword    ${arg}
    Another Keyword

Using Library setting

Test libraries are normally imported using the Library setting in the Setting section and having the library name in the subsequent column. Unlike most of the other data, the library name is both case- and space-sensitive. If a library is in a package, the full name including the package name must be used.

In those cases where the library needs arguments, they are listed in the columns after the library name. It is possible to use default values, variable number of arguments, and named arguments in test library imports similarly as with arguments to keywords. Both the library name and arguments can be set using variables.

*** Settings ***
Library    OperatingSystem
Library    my.package.TestLibrary
Library    MyLibrary    arg1    arg2
Library    ${LIBRARY}

It is possible to import test libraries in suite files, resource files and suite initialization files. In all these cases, all the keywords in the imported library are available in that file. With resource files, those keywords are also available in other files using them.

Using Import Library keyword

Another possibility to take a test library into use is using the keyword Import Library from the BuiltIn library. This keyword takes the library name and possible arguments similarly as the Library setting. Keywords from the imported library are available in the test suite where the Import Library keyword was used. This approach is useful in cases where the library is not available when the test execution starts and only some other keywords make it available.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Do Something
    Import Library    MyLibrary    arg1    arg2
    KW From MyLibrary

Using library name

The most common way to specify a test library to import is using its name, like it has been done in all the examples in this section. In these cases Robot Framework tries to find the class or module implementing the library from the module search path. Libraries that are installed somehow ought to be in the module search path automatically, but with other libraries the search path may need to be configured separately.

The biggest benefit of this approach is that when the module search path has been configured, often using a custom start-up script, normal users do not need to think where libraries actually are installed. The drawback is that getting your own, possible very simple, libraries into the search path may require some additional configuration.

Using physical path to library

Another mechanism for specifying the library to import is using a path to it in the file system. This path is considered relative to the directory where current test data file is situated similarly as paths to resource and variable files. The main benefit of this approach is that there is no need to configure the module search path.

If the library is a file, the path to it must contain extension, i.e. .py. If a library is implemented as a directory, the path to it must have a trailing forward slash (/) if the path is relative. With absolute paths the trailing slash is optional. Following examples demonstrate these different usages.

*** Settings ***
Library    PythonLibrary.py
Library    relative/path/PythonDirLib/    possible    arguments
Library    ${RESOURCES}/Example.class

A limitation of this approach is that libraries implemented as Python classes must be in a module with the same name as the class.

Normal standard libraries

The available normal standard libraries are listed below with links to their documentations:

• BuiltIn
• Collections
• DateTime
• Dialogs
• OperatingSystem
• Process
• Screenshot
• String
• Telnet
• XML

Remote library

In addition to the normal standard libraries listed above, there is also Remote library that is totally different than the other standard libraries. It does not have any keywords of its own but it works as a proxy between Robot Framework and actual test library implementations. These libraries can be running on other machines than the core framework and can even be implemented using languages not supported by Robot Framework natively.

See separate Remote library interface section for more information about this concept.

Scalar variable syntax

The most common way to use variables in Robot Framework test data is using the scalar variable syntax like ${var}. When this syntax is used, the variable name is replaced with its value as-is. Most of the time variable values are strings, but variables can contain any object, including numbers, lists, dictionaries, or even custom objects.

The example below illustrates the usage of scalar variables. Assuming that the variables ${GREET} and ${NAME} are available and assigned to strings Hello and world, respectively, both the example test cases are equivalent.

*** Test Cases ***
Constants
    Log    Hello
    Log    Hello, world!!

Variables
    Log    ${GREET}
    Log    ${GREET}, ${NAME}!!

When a scalar variable is used alone without any text or other variables around it, like in ${GREET} above, the variable is replaced with its value as-is and the value can be any object. If the variable is not used alone, like ${GREER}, ${NAME}!! above, its value is first converted into a string and then concatenated with the other data.

The example below demonstrates the difference between having a variable in alone or with other content. First, let us assume that we have a variable ${STR} set to a string Hello, world! and ${OBJ} set to an instance of the following Python object:

class MyObj:

    def __str__():
        return "Hi, terra!"

With these two variables set, we then have the following test data:

*** Test Cases ***
Objects
    KW 1    ${STR}
    KW 2    ${OBJ}
    KW 3    I said "${STR}"
    KW 4    You said "${OBJ}"

Finally, when this test data is executed, different keywords receive the arguments as explained below:

• KW 1 gets a string Hello, world!
• KW 2 gets an object stored to variable ${OBJ}
• KW 3 gets a string I said "Hello, world!"
• KW 4 gets a string You said "Hi, terra!"

List variable syntax

When a variable is used as a scalar like ${EXAMPLE}, its value is be used as-is. If a variable value is a list or list-like, it is also possible to use it as a list variable like @{EXAMPLE}. In this case the list is expanded and individual items are passed in as separate arguments. This is easiest to explain with an example. Assuming that a variable @{USER} has value ['robot', 'secret'], the following two test cases are equivalent:

*** Test Cases ***
Constants
    Login    robot    secret

List Variable
    Login    @{USER}

Robot Framework stores its own variables in one internal storage and allows using them as scalars, lists or dictionaries. Using a variable as a list requires its value to be a Python list or list-like object. Robot Framework does not allow strings to be used as lists, but other iterable objects such as tuples or dictionaries are accepted.

Starting from Robot Framework 4.0, list expansion can be used in combination with list item access making these usages possible:

*** Test Cases ***
Nested container
    ${nested} =    Evaluate    [['a', 'b', 'c'], {'key': ['x', 'y']}]
    Log Many    @{nested}[0]         # Logs 'a', 'b' and 'c'.
    Log Many    @{nested}[1][key]    # Logs 'x' and 'y'.

Slice
    ${items} =    Create List    first    second    third
    Log Many    @{items}[1:]         # Logs 'second' and  'third'.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Keyword    @{LIST}    more    args
    Keyword    ${SCALAR}    @{LIST}    constant
    Keyword    @{LIST}    @{ANOTHER}    @{ONE MORE}

*** Settings ***
Library         ExampleLibrary      @{LIB ARGS}    # This works
Library         ${LIBRARY}          @{LIB ARGS}    # This works
Library         @{LIBRARY AND ARGS}                # This does not work
Suite Setup     Some Keyword        @{KW ARGS}     # This works
Suite Setup     ${KEYWORD}          @{KW ARGS}     # This works
Suite Setup     @{KEYWORD AND ARGS}                # This does not work
Default Tags    @{TAGS}                            # This works

Dictionary variable syntax

As discussed above, a variable containing a list can be used as a list variable to pass list items to a keyword as individual arguments. Similarly a variable containing a Python dictionary or a dictionary-like object can be used as a dictionary variable like &{EXAMPLE}. In practice this means that the dictionary is expanded and individual items are passed as named arguments to the keyword. Assuming that a variable &{USER} has value {'name': 'robot', 'password': 'secret'}, the following two test cases are equivalent.

*** Test Cases ***
Constants
    Login    name=robot    password=secret

Dict Variable
    Login    &{USER}

Starting from Robot Framework 4.0, dictionary expansion can be used in combination with dictionary item access making usages like &{nested}[key] possible.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Keyword    &{DICT}    named=arg
    Keyword    positional    @{LIST}    &{DICT}
    Keyword    &{DICT}    &{ANOTHER}    &{ONE MORE}

*** Settings ***
Library        ExampleLibrary    &{LIB ARGS}
Suite Setup    Some Keyword      &{KW ARGS}     named=arg

Accessing list and dictionary items

It is possible to access items of subscriptable variables, e.g. lists and dictionaries, using special syntax like ${var}[item] or ${var}[nested][item]. Starting from Robot Framework 4.0, it is also possible to use item access together with list expansion and dictionary expansion by using syntax @{var}[item] and &{var}[item], respectively.

*** Test Cases ***
Positive index
    Login    ${USER}[0]    ${USER}[1]
    Title Should Be    Welcome ${USER}[0]!

Negative index
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[-1]

Index defined as variable
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[${INDEX}]

*** Test Cases ***
Start index
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[1:]

End index
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[:4]

Start and end
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[2:-1]

Step
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[::2]
    Keyword    ${SEQUENCE}[1:-1:10]

*** Test Cases ***
Dictionary variable item
    Login    ${USER}[name]    ${USER}[password]
    Title Should Be    Welcome ${USER}[name]!

Key defined as variable
    Log Many    ${DICT}[${KEY}]    ${DICT}[${42}]

Attribute access
    Login    ${USER.name}    ${USER.password}
    Title Should Be    Welcome ${USER.name}!

*** Test Cases ***
Nested item access
    Should Be Equal    ${DATA}[0][name]    Robot
    Should Be Equal    ${DATA}[1][id]      ${2}

Environment variables

Robot Framework allows using environment variables in the test data using the syntax %{ENV_VAR_NAME}. They are limited to string values. It is possible to specify a default value, that is used if the environment variable does not exists, by separating the variable name and the default value with an equal sign like %{ENV_VAR_NAME=default value}.

Environment variables set in the operating system before the test execution are available during it, and it is possible to create new ones with the keyword Set Environment Variable or delete existing ones with the keyword Delete Environment Variable, both available in the OperatingSystem library. Because environment variables are global, environment variables set in one test case can be used in other test cases executed after it. However, changes to environment variables are not effective after the test execution.

*** Test Cases ***
Environment variables
    Log    Current user: %{USER}
    Run    %{JAVA_HOME}${/}javac

Environment variables with defaults
    Set port    %{APPLICATION_PORT=8080}

Variable section

The most common source for variables are Variable sections in suite files and resource files. Variable sections are convenient, because they allow creating variables in the same place as the rest of the test data, and the needed syntax is very simple. Their main disadvantages are that values are always strings and they cannot be created dynamically. If either of these is a problem, variable files can be used instead.

*** Variables ***
${NAME}         Robot Framework
${VERSION}      2.0
${ROBOT}        ${NAME} ${VERSION}

*** Variables ***
${NAME} =       Robot Framework
${VERSION} =    2.0

*** Variables ***
${EXAMPLE}      This value is joined
...             together with a space.
${MULTILINE}    First line.
...             Second line.
...             Third line.
...             separator=\n

*** Variables ***
${MULTILINE}    SEPARATOR=\n
...             First line.
...             Second line.
...             Third line.

*** Variables ***
@{NAMES}        Matti       Teppo
@{NAMES2}       @{NAMES}    Seppo
@{NOTHING}
@{MANY}         one         two      three      four
...             five        six      seven

*** Variables ***
&{USER 1}       name=Matti    address=xxx         phone=123
&{USER 2}       name=Teppo    address=yyy         phone=456
&{MANY}         first=1       second=${2}         ${3}=third
&{EVEN MORE}    &{MANY}       first=override      empty=
...             =empty        key\=here=value

*** Variables ***
${X}        Y
${${X}}     Z    # Name is created based on '${X}'.

*** Test Cases ***
Dynamically created name
    Should Be Equal    ${Y}    Z

Variable file

Variable files are the most powerful mechanism for creating different kind of variables. It is possible to assign variables to any object using them, and they also enable creating variables dynamically. The variable file syntax and taking variable files into use is explained in section Resource and variable files.

Setting variables in command line

Variables can be set from the command line either individually with the --variable (-v) option or using a variable file with the --variablefile (-V) option. Variables set from the command line are globally available for all executed test data files, and they also override possible variables with the same names in the Variable section and in variable files imported in the test data.

The syntax for setting individual variables is --variable name:value, where name is the name of the variable without ${} and value is its value. Several variables can be set by using this option several times. Only scalar variables can be set using this syntax and they can only get string values.

--variable EXAMPLE:value
--variable HOST:localhost:7272 --variable USER:robot

In the examples above, variables are set so that

• ${EXAMPLE} gets the value value
• ${HOST} and ${USER} get the values localhost:7272 and robot

The basic syntax for taking variable files into use from the command line is --variablefile path/to/variables.py, and Taking variable files into use section has more details. What variables actually are created depends on what variables there are in the referenced variable file.

If both variable files and individual variables are given from the command line, the latter have higher priority.

Return values from keywords

Return values from keywords can also be set into variables. This allows communication between different keywords even in different test libraries.

Variables set in this manner are otherwise similar to any other variables, but they are available only in the local scope where they are created. Thus it is not possible, for example, to set a variable like this in one test case and use it in another. This is because, in general, automated test cases should not depend on each other, and accidentally setting a variable that is used elsewhere could cause hard-to-debug errors. If there is a genuine need for setting a variable in one test case and using it in another, it is possible to use BuiltIn keywords as explained in the next section.

*** Test Cases ***
Returning
    ${x} =    Get X    an argument
    Log    We got ${x}!

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    ${list} =    Create List    first    second    third
    Length Should Be    ${list}    3
    Log Many    @{list}

*** Test Cases ***
Item assignment to list
    ${list} =          Create List      one    two    three    four
    ${list}[0] =       Set Variable     first
    ${list}[${1}] =    Set Variable     second
    ${list}[2:3] =     Evaluate         ['third']
    ${list}[-1] =      Set Variable     last
    Log Many           @{list}          # Logs 'first', 'second', 'third' and 'last'

Item assignment to dictionary
    ${dict} =                Create Dictionary    first_name=unknown
    ${dict}[first_name] =    Set Variable         John
    ${dict}[last_name] =     Set Variable         Doe
    Log                      ${dictionary}        # Logs {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Doe'}

*** Test Cases ***
Dynamically created name
    ${x} =    Set Variable    y
    ${${x}} =    Set Variable    z    # Name is created based on '${x}'.
    Should Be Equal    ${y}    z

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    @{list} =    Create List    first    second    third
    Length Should Be    ${list}    3
    Log Many    @{list}

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    &{dict} =    Create Dictionary    first=1    second=${2}    ${3}=third
    Length Should Be    ${dict}    3
    Do Something    &{dict}
    Log    ${dict.first}

*** Test Cases ***
Assign multiple
    ${a}    ${b}    ${c} =    Get Three
    ${first}    @{rest} =    Get Three
    @{before}    ${last} =    Get Three
    ${begin}    @{middle}    ${end} =    Get Three

--maxassignlength 1000
--maxassignlength 0

VAR syntax

Starting from Robot Framework 7.0, it is possible to create variables inside tests and user keywords using the VAR syntax. The VAR marker is case-sensitive and it must be followed by a variable name and value. Other than the mandatory VAR, the overall syntax is mostly the same as when creating variables in the Variable section.

The new syntax is aims to make creating variables simpler and more uniform. It is especially indented to replace the BuiltIn keywords Set Variable, Set Test Variable, Set Suite Variable and Set Global Variable, but it can be used instead of Catenate, Create List and Create Dictionary as well.

*** Test Cases ***
Scalar examples
     VAR    ${simple}       variable
     VAR    ${equals} =     this works too
     VAR    ${variable}     value contains ${simple}
     VAR    ${sentence}     This is a bit longer variable value
     ...                    that is split into multiple rows.
     ...                    These parts are joined with a space.
     VAR    ${multiline}    This is another longer value.
     ...                    This time there is a custom separator.
     ...                    As the result this becomes a multiline string.
     ...                    separator=\n

*** Test Cases ***
List examples
     VAR    @{two items}     Robot    Framework
     VAR    @{empty list}
     VAR    @{lot of stuff}
     ...    first item
     ...    second item
     ...    third item
     ...    fourth item
     ...    last item

Dictionary examples
     VAR    &{two items}     name=Robot Framework    url=http://robotframework.org
     VAR    &{empty dict}
     VAR    &{lot of stuff}
     ...    first=1
     ...    second=2
     ...    third=3
     ...    fourth=4
     ...    last=5

*** Variables ***
${SUITE}         this value is overridden

*** Test Cases ***
Scope example
    VAR    ${local}     local value
    VAR    ${TEST}      test value            scope=TEST
    VAR    ${SUITE}     suite value           scope=SUITE
    VAR    ${SUITES}    nested suite value    scope=SUITES
    VAR    ${GLOBAL}    global value          scope=GLOBAL
    Should Be Equal    ${local}     local value
    Should Be Equal    ${TEST}      test value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITE}     suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITES}    nested suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${GLOBAL}    global value
    Keyword
    Should Be Equal    ${TEST}      new test value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITE}     new suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITES}    new nested suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${GLOBAL}    new global value

Scope example, part 2
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITE}     new suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITES}    new nested suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${GLOBAL}    new global value

*** Keywords ***
Keyword
    Should Be Equal    ${TEST}      test value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITE}     suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITES}    nested suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${GLOBAL}    global value
    VAR    ${TEST}      new ${TEST}      scope=TEST
    VAR    ${SUITE}     new ${SUITE}     scope=SUITE
    VAR    ${SUITES}    new ${SUITES}    scope=SUITES
    VAR    ${GLOBAL}    new ${GLOBAL}    scope=GLOBAL
    Should Be Equal    ${TEST}      new test value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITE}     new suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${SUITES}    new nested suite value
    Should Be Equal    ${GLOBAL}    new global value

*** Test Cases ***
IF/ELSE example
    IF    "${ENV}" == "devel"
        VAR    ${address}    127.0.0.1
        VAR    ${name}       demo
    ELSE
        VAR    ${address}    192.168.1.42
        VAR    ${name}       robot
    END

Inline IF
    IF    "${ENV}" == "devel"    VAR    ${name}    demo    ELSE    VAR    ${name}    robot

*** Test Cases ***
Dynamic name
    VAR    ${x}       y    # Normal assignment.
    VAR    ${${x}}    z    # Name created dynamically.
    Should Be Equal    ${y}    z

Using Set Test/Suite/Global Variable keywords

The BuiltIn library has keywords Set Test Variable, Set Suite Variable and Set Global Variable which can be used for setting variables dynamically during the test execution. If a variable already exists within the new scope, its value will be overwritten, and otherwise a new variable is created.

Variables set with Set Test Variable keyword are available everywhere within the scope of the currently executed test case. For example, if you set a variable in a user keyword, it is available both in the test case level and also in all other user keywords used in the current test. Other test cases will not see variables set with this keyword. It is an error to call Set Test Variable outside the scope of a test (e.g. in a Suite Setup or Teardown).

Variables set with Set Suite Variable keyword are available everywhere within the scope of the currently executed test suite. Setting variables with this keyword thus has the same effect as creating them using the Variable section in the test data file or importing them from variable files. Other test suites, including possible child test suites, will not see variables set with this keyword.

Variables set with Set Global Variable keyword are globally available in all test cases and suites executed after setting them. Setting variables with this keyword thus has the same effect as creating from the command line using the options --variable or --variablefile. Because this keyword can change variables everywhere, it should be used with care.

Operating-system variables

Built-in variables related to the operating system ease making the test data operating-system-agnostic.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Create Binary File    ${CURDIR}${/}input.data    Some text here${\n}on two lines
    Set Environment Variable    CLASSPATH    ${TEMPDIR}${:}${CURDIR}${/}foo.jar

Number variables

The variable syntax can be used for creating both integers and floating point numbers, as illustrated in the example below. This is useful when a keyword expects to get an actual number, and not a string that just looks like a number, as an argument.

*** Test Cases ***
Example 1A
    Connect    example.com    80       # Connect gets two strings as arguments

Example 1B
    Connect    example.com    ${80}    # Connect gets a string and an integer

Example 2
    Do X    ${3.14}    ${-1e-4}        # Do X gets floating point numbers 3.14 and -0.0001

It is possible to create integers also from binary, octal, and hexadecimal values using 0b, 0o and 0x prefixes, respectively. The syntax is case insensitive.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Should Be Equal    ${0b1011}    ${11}
    Should Be Equal    ${0o10}      ${8}
    Should Be Equal    ${0xff}      ${255}
    Should Be Equal    ${0B1010}    ${0XA}

Boolean and None/null variables

Also Boolean values and Python None can be created using the variable syntax similarly as numbers.

*** Test Cases ***
Boolean
    Set Status    ${true}               # Set Status gets Boolean true as an argument
    Create Y    something   ${false}    # Create Y gets a string and Boolean false

None
    Do XYZ    ${None}                   # Do XYZ gets Python None as an argument

These variables are case-insensitive, so for example ${True} and ${true} are equivalent.

Space and empty variables

It is possible to create spaces and empty strings using variables ${SPACE} and ${EMPTY}, respectively. These variables are useful, for example, when there would otherwise be a need to escape spaces or empty cells with a backslash. If more than one space is needed, it is possible to use the extended variable syntax like ${SPACE * 5}. In the following example, Should Be Equal keyword gets identical arguments but those using variables are easier to understand than those using backslashes.

*** Test Cases ***
One space
    Should Be Equal    ${SPACE}          \ \

Four spaces
    Should Be Equal    ${SPACE * 4}      \ \ \ \ \

Ten spaces
    Should Be Equal    ${SPACE * 10}     \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

Quoted space
    Should Be Equal    "${SPACE}"        " "

Quoted spaces
    Should Be Equal    "${SPACE * 2}"    " \ "

Empty
    Should Be Equal    ${EMPTY}          \

There is also an empty list variable @{EMPTY} and an empty dictionary variable &{EMPTY}. Because they have no content, they basically vanish when used somewhere in the test data. They are useful, for example, with test templates when the template keyword is used without arguments or when overriding list or dictionary variables in different scopes. Modifying the value of @{EMPTY} or &{EMPTY} is not possible.

*** Test Cases ***
Template
    [Template]    Some keyword
    @{EMPTY}

Override
    Set Global Variable    @{LIST}    @{EMPTY}
    Set Suite Variable     &{DICT}    &{EMPTY}

Automatic variables

Some automatic variables can also be used in the test data. These variables can have different values during the test execution and some of them are not even available all the time. Altering the value of these variables does not affect the original values, but some values can be changed dynamically using keywords from the BuiltIn library.

Suite related variables ${SUITE SOURCE}, ${SUITE NAME}, ${SUITE DOCUMENTATION} and &{SUITE METADATA} as well as options related to command line options like ${LOG FILE} and &{OPTIONS} are available already when libraries and variable files are imported. Possible variables in these automatic variables are not yet resolved at the import time, though.

Variable priorities

Variables from the command line

Variables set in the command line have the highest priority of all variables that can be set before the actual test execution starts. They override possible variables created in Variable sections in test case files, as well as in resource and variable files imported in the test data.

Individually set variables (--variable option) override the variables set using variable files (--variablefile option). If you specify same individual variable multiple times, the one specified last will override earlier ones. This allows setting default values for variables in a start-up script and overriding them from the command line. Notice, though, that if multiple variable files have same variables, the ones in the file specified first have the highest priority.

Variable section in a test case file

Variables created using the Variable section in a test case file are available for all the test cases in that file. These variables override possible variables with same names in imported resource and variable files.

Variables created in the Variable sections are available in all other sections in the file where they are created. This means that they can be used also in the Setting section, for example, for importing more variables from resource and variable files.

Imported resource and variable files

Variables imported from the resource and variable files have the lowest priority of all variables created in the test data. Variables from resource files and variable files have the same priority. If several resource and/or variable file have same variables, the ones in the file imported first are taken into use.

If a resource file imports resource files or variable files, variables in its own Variable section have a higher priority than variables it imports. All these variables are available for files that import this resource file.

Note that variables imported from resource and variable files are not available in the Variable section of the file that imports them. This is due to the Variable section being processed before the Setting section where the resource files and variable files are imported.

Variables set during test execution

Variables set during the test execution either using return values from keywords or using Set Test/Suite/Global Variable keywords always override possible existing variables in the scope where they are set. In a sense they thus have the highest priority, but on the other hand they do not affect variables outside the scope they are defined.

Built-in variables

Built-in variables like ${TEMPDIR} and ${TEST_NAME} have the highest priority of all variables. They cannot be overridden using Variable section or from command line, but even they can be reset during the test execution. An exception to this rule are number variables, which are resolved dynamically if no variable is found otherwise. They can thus be overridden, but that is generally a bad idea. Additionally ${CURDIR} is special because it is replaced already during the test data processing time.

Variable scopes

Depending on where and how they are created, variables can have a global, test suite, test case or local scope.

Extended variable syntax

Extended variable syntax allows accessing attributes of an object assigned to a variable (for example, ${object.attribute}) and even calling its methods (for example, ${obj.getName()}). It works both with scalar and list variables, but is mainly useful with the former.

Extended variable syntax is a powerful feature, but it should be used with care. Accessing attributes is normally not a problem, on the contrary, because one variable containing an object with several attributes is often better than having several variables. On the other hand, calling methods, especially when they are used with arguments, can make the test data pretty complicated to understand. If that happens, it is recommended to move the code into a test library.

The most common usages of extended variable syntax are illustrated in the example below. First assume that we have the following variable file and test case:

class MyObject:

    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

    def eat(self, what):
        return '%s eats %s' % (self.name, what)

    def __str__(self):
        return self.name

OBJECT = MyObject('Robot')
DICTIONARY = {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three'}

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    KW 1    ${OBJECT.name}
    KW 2    ${OBJECT.eat('Cucumber')}
    KW 3    ${DICTIONARY[2]}

When this test data is executed, the keywords get the arguments as explained below:

• KW 1 gets string Robot
• KW 2 gets string Robot eats Cucumber
• KW 3 gets string two

The extended variable syntax is evaluated in the following order:

1. The variable is searched using the full variable name. The extended variable syntax is evaluated only if no matching variable is found.
2. The name of the base variable is created. The body of the name consists of all the characters after the opening { until the first occurrence of a character that is not an alphanumeric character or a space. For example, base variables of ${OBJECT.name} and ${DICTIONARY[2]}) are OBJECT and DICTIONARY, respectively.
3. A variable matching the body is searched. If there is no match, an exception is raised and the test case fails.
4. The expression inside the curly brackets is evaluated as a Python expression, so that the base variable name is replaced with its value. If the evaluation fails because of an invalid syntax or that the queried attribute does not exist, an exception is raised and the test fails.
5. The whole extended variable is replaced with the value returned from the evaluation.

Many standard Python objects, including strings and numbers, have methods that can be used with the extended variable syntax either explicitly or implicitly. Sometimes this can be really useful and reduce the need for setting temporary variables, but it is also easy to overuse it and create really cryptic test data. Following examples show few pretty good usages.

*** Test Cases ***
String
    ${string} =    Set Variable    abc
    Log    ${string.upper()}      # Logs 'ABC'
    Log    ${string * 2}          # Logs 'abcabc'

Number
    ${number} =    Set Variable    ${-2}
    Log    ${number * 10}         # Logs -20
    Log    ${number.__abs__()}    # Logs 2

Note that even though abs(number) is recommended over number.__abs__() in normal Python code, using ${abs(number)} does not work. This is because the variable name must be in the beginning of the extended syntax. Using __xxx__ methods in the test data like this is already a bit questionable, and it is normally better to move this kind of logic into test libraries.

Extended variable syntax works also in list variable context. If, for example, an object assigned to a variable ${EXTENDED} has an attribute attribute that contains a list as a value, it can be used as a list variable @{EXTENDED.attribute}.

Extended variable assignment

It is possible to set attributes of objects stored to scalar variables using keyword return values and a variation of the extended variable syntax. Assuming we have variable ${OBJECT} from the previous examples, attributes could be set to it like in the example below.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    ${OBJECT.name} =    Set Variable    New name
    ${OBJECT.new_attr} =    Set Variable    New attribute

The extended variable assignment syntax is evaluated using the following rules:

1. The assigned variable must be a scalar variable and have at least one dot. Otherwise the extended assignment syntax is not used and the variable is assigned normally.
2. If there exists a variable with the full name (e.g. ${OBJECT.name} in the example above) that variable will be assigned a new value and the extended syntax is not used.
3. The name of the base variable is created. The body of the name consists of all the characters between the opening ${ and the last dot, for example, OBJECT in ${OBJECT.name} and foo.bar in ${foo.bar.zap}. As the second example illustrates, the base name may contain normal extended variable syntax.
4. The name of the attribute to set is created by taking all the characters between the last dot and the closing }, for example, name in ${OBJECT.name}. If the name does not start with a letter or underscore and contain only these characters and numbers, the attribute is considered invalid and the extended syntax is not used. A new variable with the full name is created instead.
5. A variable matching the base name is searched. If no variable is found, the extended syntax is not used and, instead, a new variable is created using the full variable name.
6. If the found variable is a string or a number, the extended syntax is ignored and a new variable created using the full name. This is done because you cannot add new attributes to Python strings or numbers, and this way the new syntax is also less backwards-incompatible.
7. If all the previous rules match, the attribute is set to the base variable. If setting fails for any reason, an exception is raised and the test fails.

Variables inside variables

Variables are allowed also inside variables, and when this syntax is used, variables are resolved from the inside out. For example, if you have a variable ${var${x}}, then ${x} is resolved first. If it has the value name, the final value is then the value of the variable ${varname}. There can be several nested variables, but resolving the outermost fails, if any of them does not exist.

In the example below, Do X gets the value ${JOHN HOME} or ${JANE HOME}, depending on if Get Name returns john or jane. If it returns something else, resolving ${${name} HOME} fails.

*** Variables ***
${JOHN HOME}    /home/john
${JANE HOME}    /home/jane

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    ${name} =    Get Name
    Do X    ${${name} HOME}

Inline Python evaluation

Variable syntax can also be used for evaluating Python expressions. The basic syntax is ${{expression}} i.e. there are double curly braces around the expression. The expression can be any valid Python expression such as ${{1 + 2}} or ${{['a', 'list']}}. Spaces around the expression are allowed, so also ${{ 1 + 2 }} and ${{ ['a', 'list'] }} are valid. In addition to using normal scalar variables, also list variables and dictionary variables support @{{expression}} and &{{expression}} syntax, respectively.

Main usages for this pretty advanced functionality are:

• Evaluating Python expressions involving Robot Framework's variables (${{len('${var}') > 3}}, ${{$var[0] if $var is not None else None}}).
• Creating values that are not Python base types (${{decimal.Decimal('0.11')}}, ${{datetime.date(2019, 11, 5)}}).
• Creating values dynamically (${{random.randint(0, 100)}}, ${{datetime.date.today()}}).
• Constructing collections, especially nested collections (${{[1, 2, 3, 4]}}, ${{ {'id': 1, 'name': 'Example', 'children': [7, 9]} }}).
• Accessing constants and other useful attributes in Python modules (${{math.pi}}, ${{platform.system()}}).

This is somewhat similar functionality than the extended variable syntax discussed earlier. As the examples above illustrate, this syntax is even more powerful as it provides access to Python built-ins like len() and modules like math. In addition to being able to use variables like ${var} in the expressions (they are replaced before evaluation), variables are also available using the special $var syntax during evaluation. The whole expression syntax is explained in the Evaluating expressions appendix.

Basic syntax

In many ways, the overall user keyword syntax is identical to the test case syntax. User keywords are created in Keyword sections which differ from Test Case sections only by the name that is used to identify them. User keyword names are in the first column similarly as test cases names. Also user keywords are created from keywords, either from keywords in test libraries or other user keywords. Keyword names are normally in the second column, but when setting variables from keyword return values, they are in the subsequent columns.

*** Keywords ***
Open Login Page
    Open Browser    http://host/login.html
    Title Should Be    Login Page

Title Should Start With
    [Arguments]    ${expected}
    ${title} =    Get Title
    Should Start With    ${title}    ${expected}

Most user keywords take some arguments. This important feature is used already in the second example above, and it is explained in detail later in this section, similarly as user keyword return values.

User keywords can be created in suite files, resource files, and suite initialization files. Keywords created in resource files are available for files using them, whereas other keywords are only available in the files where they are created.

Settings in the Keyword section

User keywords can have similar settings as test cases, and they have the same square bracket syntax separating them from keyword names. All available settings are listed below and explained later in this section.

[Documentation]

Used for setting a user keyword documentation.

[Tags]

Sets tags for the keyword.

[Arguments]

Specifies user keyword arguments.

[Setup], [Teardown]

Specify user keyword setup and teardown. [Setup] is new in Robot Framework 7.0.

[Timeout]

Sets the possible user keyword timeout. Timeouts are discussed in a section of their own.

[Return]

Specifies user keyword return values. Deprecated in Robot Framework 7.0, the RETURN statement should be used instead.

Positional arguments with user keywords

The simplest way to specify arguments (apart from not having them at all) is using only positional arguments. In most cases, this is all that is needed.

The syntax is such that first the [Arguments] setting is given and then argument names are defined in the subsequent cells. Each argument is in its own cell, using the same syntax as with variables. The keyword must be used with as many arguments as there are argument names in its signature. The actual argument names do not matter to the framework, but from users' perspective they should be as descriptive as possible. It is recommended to use lower-case letters in variable names, either as ${my_arg}, ${my arg} or ${myArg}.

*** Keywords ***
One Argument
    [Arguments]    ${arg_name}
    Log    Got argument ${arg_name}

Three Arguments
    [Arguments]    ${arg1}    ${arg2}    ${arg3}
    Log    1st argument: ${arg1}
    Log    2nd argument: ${arg2}
    Log    3rd argument: ${arg3}

Default values with user keywords

When creating user keywords, positional arguments are sufficient in most situations. It is, however, sometimes useful that keywords have default values for some or all of their arguments. Also user keywords support default values, and the needed new syntax does not add very much to the already discussed basic syntax.

In short, default values are added to arguments, so that first there is the equals sign (=) and then the value, for example ${arg}=default. There can be many arguments with defaults, but they all must be given after the normal positional arguments. The default value can contain a variable created on test, suite or global scope, but local variables of the keyword executor cannot be used. Default value can also be defined based on earlier arguments accepted by the keyword.

*** Keywords ***
One Argument With Default Value
    [Arguments]    ${arg}=default value
    [Documentation]    This keyword takes 0-1 arguments
    Log    Got argument ${arg}

Two Arguments With Defaults
    [Arguments]    ${arg1}=default 1    ${arg2}=${VARIABLE}
    [Documentation]    This keyword takes 0-2 arguments
    Log    1st argument ${arg1}
    Log    2nd argument ${arg2}

One Required And One With Default
    [Arguments]    ${required}    ${optional}=default
    [Documentation]    This keyword takes 1-2 arguments
    Log    Required: ${required}
    Log    Optional: ${optional}

 Default Based On Earlier Argument
    [Arguments]    ${a}    ${b}=${a}    ${c}=${a} and ${b}
    Should Be Equal    ${a}    ${b}
    Should Be Equal    ${c}    ${a} and ${b}

When a keyword accepts several arguments with default values and only some of them needs to be overridden, it is often handy to use the named arguments syntax. When this syntax is used with user keywords, the arguments are specified without the ${} decoration. For example, the second keyword above could be used like below and ${arg1} would still get its default value.

*** Test Cases ***
Example
    Two Arguments With Defaults    arg2=new value

As all Pythonistas must have already noticed, the syntax for specifying default arguments is heavily inspired by Python syntax for function default values.

Variable number of arguments with user keywords

Sometimes even default values are not enough and there is a need for a keyword accepting variable number of arguments. User keywords support also this feature. All that is needed is having list variable such as @{varargs} after possible positional arguments in the keyword signature. This syntax can be combined with the previously described default values, and at the end the list variable gets all the leftover arguments that do not match other arguments. The list variable can thus have any number of items, even zero.

*** Keywords ***
Any Number Of Arguments
    [Arguments]    @{varargs}
    Log Many    @{varargs}

One Or More Arguments
    [Arguments]    ${required}    @{rest}
    Log Many    ${required}    @{rest}

Required, Default, Varargs
    [Arguments]    ${req}    ${opt}=42    @{others}
    Log    Required: ${req}
    Log    Optional: ${opt}
    Log    Others:
    FOR    ${item}    IN    @{others}
        Log    ${item}
    END

Notice that if the last keyword above is used with more than one argument, the second argument ${opt} always gets the given value instead of the default value. This happens even if the given value is empty. The last example also illustrates how a variable number of arguments accepted by a user keyword can be used in a for loop. This combination of two rather advanced functions can sometimes be very useful.

The keywords in the examples above could be used, for example, like this:

*** Test Cases ***
Varargs with user keywords
    Any Number Of Arguments
    Any Number Of Arguments    arg
    Any Number Of Arguments    arg1    arg2    arg3   arg4
    One Or More Arguments    required
    One Or More Arguments    arg1    arg2    arg3   arg4
    Required, Default, Varargs    required
    Required, Default, Varargs    required    optional
    Required, Default, Varargs    arg1    arg2    arg3    arg4    arg5

Again, Pythonistas probably notice that the variable number of arguments syntax is very close to the one in Python.

Free named arguments with user keywords

User keywords can also accept free named arguments by having a dictionary variable like &{named} as the absolutely last argument. When the keyword is called, this variable will get all named arguments that do not match any positional argument or named-only argument in the keyword signature.

*** Keywords ***
Free Named Only
    [Arguments]    &{named}
    Log Many    &{named}

Positional And Free Named
    [Arguments]    ${required}    &{extra}
    Log Many    ${required}    &{extra}

Run Program
    [Arguments]    @{args}    &{config}
    Run Process    program.py    @{args}    &{config}

The last example above shows how to create a wrapper keyword that accepts any positional or named argument and passes them forward. See free named argument examples for a full example with same keyword.

Free named arguments support with user keywords works similarly as kwargs work in Python. In the signature and also when passing arguments forward, &{kwargs} is pretty much the same as Python's **kwargs.

Named-only arguments with user keywords

Starting from Robot Framework 3.1, user keywords support named-only arguments that are inspired by Python 3 keyword-only arguments. This syntax is typically used by having normal arguments after variable number of arguments (@{varargs}). If the keywords does not use varargs, it is possible to use just @{} to denote that the subsequent arguments are named-only:

*** Keywords ***
With Varargs
    [Arguments]    @{varargs}    ${named}
    Log Many    @{varargs}    ${named}

Without Varargs
    [Arguments]    @{}    ${first}    ${second}
    Log Many    ${first}    ${second}

Named-only arguments can be used together with positional arguments as well as with free named arguments. When using free named arguments, they must be last:

*** Keywords ***
With Positional
    [Arguments]    ${positional}    @{}    ${named}
    Log Many    ${positional}    ${named}

With Free Named
    [Arguments]    @{varargs}    ${named only}    &{free named}
    Log Many    @{varargs}    ${named only}    &{free named}